Tyres

This technical working paper details the second stage proposal in the development of the tire wear and consumption model for HDM-4 within the ISOHDM research framework. The paper focuses on the mechanical principles and force equilibrium equations that drive tire tread abrasion on asphalt, concrete, and unpaved road surfaces. It establishes the mathematical relationships connecting vehicle mass, longitudinal acceleration, lateral forces on horizontal curves, aerodynamic resistance, and surface macrotexture to the rate of rubber loss per vehicle kilometer traveled. Experimental test data from international research programs are analyzed to validate force coefficient values and assess the relative impact of road roughness (measured in IRI) versus microtexture and macrotexture on tread degradation. The paper addresses the differential wear rates observed across steer, drive, and trailer axles on heavy commercial vehicles, proposing multi-axle weighting factors to improve overall prediction accuracy. Furthermore, economic modeling aspects are explored, focusing on the trade-offs between initial tire purchase costs, retreading cycles, and premature replacement due to severe road surface distress. This document bridges early conceptual frameworks with the final mathematical code, providing highway engineers and software developers with an essential verification step for incorporating realistic tire operating cost calculations into highway planning models. Overall, the report emphasizes rigorous empirical validation, standardized data acquisition protocols, and modular integration into the broader Highway Development and Management analytical engine. By combining physical principles with statistical calibration across international trial sites, this working paper provides a robust theoretical and practical baseline for highway authorities to evaluate long-term infrastructure policy options,

 

Detailed analysis of the total cost of ownership (TCO) consisting of all costs related to both purchasing and operating the vehicle. This TCO analysis builds on previous work to provide a comprehensive perspective of all relevant vehicle costs of ownership. In this report, we present what we believe to be the most comprehensive explicit financial analysis of the costs that will be incurred by a vehicle owner. This study considers vehicle cost and depreciation, financing, fuel costs, insurance costs, maintenance and repair costs, taxes and fees, and other operational costs to formulate a holistic total cost of ownership and operation of multiple different vehicles. For each of these cost parameters that together constitute a comprehensive TCO, extensive literature review and data analysis were performed to find representative values in order to build a holistic TCO for vehicles of all size classes. The light- and heavy-duty vehicles selected for analysis in this report are representative of those that are on the road today and expected to be available in the future. Table ES-1 summarizes the main parameters in this study, including the cost components which comprise TCO, the sizes and vocations of vehicles which are analyzed, the powertrains of these vehicles, and the model year for analysis of both current and future vehicles.

This chapter covers the emissions of particulate matter (PM) including black carbon (BC) ( 1 ) which are due to road vehicle tyre and brake wear (NFR code 1.A.3.b.vi), and road surface wear (NFR code 1.A.3.b.vii). PM emissions from vehicle exhaust are not included. The focus is on primary particles — in other words, those particles emitted directly as a result of the wear of surfaces — and not those resulting from the resuspension of previously deposited material. It should be noted that the second level of the NFR code for these emission sources relates to ‘combustion’. Clearly, tyre wear, brake wear and road surface wear are abrasion processes, not combustion processes. However, these chapters have been assigned their NFR codes as a matter of convenience, and to allow all emissions from road transport to be assessed together. For the present time, this anomaly has to be accepted by inventory compilers. PM emissions are considered in relation to the general vehicle classes identified in Chapter 1.A.3.b Road transport concerning exhaust emissions from road transport (NFR codes 1.A.3.b.i to b iv), these being passenger cars, light-duty trucks, heavy-duty vehicles and two-wheel vehicles.

The abrasion processes of rubber or tires are extremely complex phenomena and basically different from those of other materials. Much research in tire industry has been done to predict the wear of a tire tread. However, such studies have not considered the history dependency of abrasion as well as directional effects. This paper is to propose an advanced abrasion model for rubber that will takes these two effects into account. As a result the new model can be applied to predict tire tread wear. Within this model, directional damage will be introduced to characterize the history of frictional sliding contact including the change of slip directions. It also covers local contact conditions such as contact pressure, slip velocity or flash temperature. The model will be analyzed theoretically and numerically. A FEM simulation for the Grosch-wheel with different loading conditions using the new abrasion model is performed and validated by experimental data.

MIRAVEC Report D2.1.  This is a report of the findings in Work Package 2 (WP2) in MIRAVEC. The objective of this WP is to describe existing modelling tools and evaluate their capabilities with respect to analysing the effects identified in WP1 “Road infrastructure influence effects on vehicle energy consumption and associated parameters”. The variables identified in WP1 and considered to be the most important to take into consideration when estimating the impact of road infrastructure on road traffic energy use are texture (MPD), IRI (unevenness), rut depth (RUT), gradient (RF), crossfall, horizontal curvature (ADC), road width, traffic volume (AADT) and speed (v). In this report, a selection of projects that have evaluated road characteristics and the effect on energy use are described and analysed. The results of these project shows that there can be benefits energy wise in taking the energy aspect into consideration when planning a new road or choosing rehabilitation measure of the pavement. 

MIRAVEC Report D5.3.  The objective of MIRAVEC was to build on existing knowledge and models in order to achieve a more holistic view considering a broad variety of effects. The project results are compiled in this final report of MIRAVEC project. The first part of this final report is a short summary on the findings and outputs of all Work Packages (WP), while the second part is a summary of all recommendations to National Road Administrations (NRAs) on how to implement the findings, models and tools in pavement and asset management systems. The main findings and recommendations of the project can be summarised as follows:  Five major groups of parameters influencing road vehicle energy and fuel consumption were identified, of which a subset was selected based on impact, potential for influence by National Roads Administrations and integration into existing fuel consumption models. Further analysis showed that while currently monitored parameters can be used for modelling several effects of the infrastructure influence, knowledge gaps remain with respect to other parameters and the correct modelling of associated effects.  There is no current model which takes all infrastructure-related effects into account. Most models for fuel consumption and CO2 emission of road vehicles focus on vehicle and traffic flow characteristics and tend to neglect details of the infrastructure. The Swedish VETO model is one of the most advanced models in this respect and was the basis of many analyses. As the knowledge about the infrastructure influence increases, these models offer the possibility to integrate this knowledge into decision making.  The spreadsheet tool developed in WP3 allows the comparison of the effects of different infrastructure-related measures on fuel consumption and CO2 emission. It requires data about the most widely available pavement and road layout parameters and uses information about traffic flow and vehicles as background information. While the tool can be applied even with limited data, the strong influence of these background data found in the analysis may supersede the infrastructure effects in some cases.  The investigation of the current situation with regard to the occurrence of this topic in pavement and asset management found a growing awareness of its importance with road managers, but so far very limited implementation in the actual systems. While future models based on the more commonly monitored infrastructure parameters will make the integration of vehicle CO2 emission feasible, acceptance and weight in decision making in the view of limited financial resources for maintenance still remain to be achieved. 

Various reports and presentations from the EU MIRAVEC looking at the impact of infrastructure on vehicle energy.

MIRAVEC Report D1.1: This document describes the different road infrastructure parameters which can contribute to the overall road vehicle energy consumption and highlights those which can be influenced by infrastructure design. It is a report on the effects and parameters that need be considered in order to determine the influence of road infrastructure on road vehicle energy consumption by modelling. The effects and properties were divided into the following five groups: A. Effects of pavement surface characteristics (rolling resistance, texture, longitudinal and transversal unevenness, cracking, rutting, other surface imperfections) B. Effects of road design and layout (e.g. road curvature, gradient and crossfall, lane provision) C. Traffic properties and interaction with the traffic flow (e.g. free flowing traffic vs. stop-and-go, speed limits, access restrictions) D. Vehicle and tyre characteristics including the potential effect of technological changes in this area E. Meteorological effects (e.g. temperature, wind, water, snow, ice)

The tire wear model is build based on Archard wear theory. In this tire wear model, the steady rolling of tire is considred. Moerover, the analisys for the steady rolling of tire is used in the simulation. In this paper, 195/65R15 tire is used to build a 3D tire FE model for simulation. The tire radial direction modal and natural frequency are calculated to valitate the 3D tire FE model. At first, using Pro/E and Abaqus software the tire patten is obtained. Next, the contact footprint and pressure between tire and road are analyzed with the tire rolling dynamics. The three situations are considered to analyze the state of tire wear, the side slip angles, the vertical load and the inner pressure.

The theory of tire wear computation is researched, and steady state transfer analysis and steady state rolling slippage are analyzed and deduced; the uniform wear rate of discrete node on the tire tread pattern is induced based on adhesive wear mechanism. Tire body model and tread pattern model are established by using Neo-Hooken constitutive model and linear elastic model, and the whole tire model is formed. Tire wear simulation analysis is preceded with combination of Abaqus Arbitary Lagrangian and Eulerian (ALE) method and the user subroutine programmed according to tire wear computation model. Tire wear of different mileage under free rolling state, tire wear under breaking condition and driving condition are compared, and slip angle, load and tire pressure’s impact on tire wear are analyzed.

The formula of tire wear is established considering temperature effect and the dynamic characteristics of vehicles. In addition, the effects of speed, ambient temperatures, tire pressure and sprung mass for tire wear are analyzed. Finally, the main impact factors of tire tread wear are obtained through the parameters sensitivity analysis. The results show that: the established model of tire wear is feasible, and the results can reflect the wear conditions of tires, which provides a theoretic foundation to predict tire wear for different types of tire under different running conditions.

Memos giving additional background to mechanistic tyre modelling.

This study has aimed to determine an appropriate formulation for the calculation of tyre wear in HDM 4. In particular, a method has been proposed for calculating the eased tyre wear which occurs in congested traffic conditions, compared to free flowing traffic conditions at the same mean speed on a homogeneous section of road.

Memo describing issues with HDM-4 tyre consumption modelling

This study examines treadwear on tires caused by low severity cornering during free roll. The authors previously proposed a method to predict treadwear using rubber pad wear tests. This method required measurements from actual tires to obtain the tread frictional parameters, i.e., the sliding distance, sliding velocity, and contact pressure. The present study proposes an analytical tire model for predicting treadwear that does not require measurements from actual tires. This enables treadwear prediction during the tire design stage, prior to test tire construction. A continuous tread model for lateral tread deformation is described to evaluate the frictional parameters. The treadwear is then predicted from the parameters and the rubber pad wear rate. The predicted treadwear rates are compared with actual treadwear rates and are found to be valid in the tread center area.

Report describing mechanistic tyre model

Report describing tyre consumption model, particularly congestion effects

Memo describing how tyre diameter is predicted

Development of the model for predicting rubber volume

This study has aimed to determine an appropriate formulation for the calculation of tyre wear in HDM 4. In particular, a method has been proposed for calculating the increased tyre wear which occurs in congested traffic conditions, compared to free flowing traffic conditions at the same mean speed on a homogeneous section of road.

Report from NZ on mechanistic tyre modelling.

How to predict tire traction and wear.

Evaluation of tire consumption.

Paper proposing mechanistic modelling of tyre consumption.

This report presents the results of a research project to investigate the suitability of fixed slip friction meters for on-road determination of pavement surface arasiveness. It was intended that this would involve establishing a degree of correlation between tyre abrasion and the road surface friction coefficient, as measured by Central Laboratories' Findlay Irvine GripTester.

This technical working paper presents the finalized mathematical formulation and modeling framework for vehicle tire wear and consumption within the Highway Development and Management (HDM-4) model, produced under the International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools (ISOHDM). The document details how physical forces acting on tires—including rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, gravitational resistance on steep vertical gradients, and lateral cornering forces—translate into mechanical tread wear and carcass deterioration over continuous operational cycles. Key pavement surface characteristics such as International Roughness Index (IRI), microtexture, and surface macrotexture depth are integrated with vehicle operating conditions, axle loads, tire inflation pressures, and wheel alignment parameters to estimate overall tire wear rates across distinct vehicle classes, including passenger cars, light commercial vehicles, buses, and heavy articulated multi-axle freight trucks. Furthermore, the report distinguishes between radial and bias-ply tire technologies, establishing empirical calibration coefficients derived from extensive field trials across diverse climatic regions. Economic implications are comprehensively evaluated, translating physical tread volume loss into monetary unit costs associated with tire replacement, retreading cycles, and carcass maintenance. The output of this tire consumption model serves as a core module of HDM-4 Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC), enabling highway agencies, transport planners, and infrastructure engineers to conduct rigorous economic evaluations of pavement maintenance strategies, surface dressing policies, and long-term capital investments by accurately forecasting user cost savings resulting from smoother and better-maintained road networks worldwide. Overall, the report emphasizes rigorous empirical validation, standardized data acquisition protocols, and modular integration into the broader Highway Development and Management analytical engine.

 

Paper summarizing Swedish tire modelling research.

Paper proposing mechanistic modelling of tyre consumption.

Paper proposing mechanistic modelling of tyre consumption.

This document represents the third refined working proposal for the tire wear and consumption module of the HDM-4 model under the International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools (ISOHDM). Building upon earlier iterations, this technical paper incorporates extensive empirical validation data collected from field experiments across developing and developed countries, including trials conducted in tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate environments. The report refines the mathematical relationships governing tread volume loss as a function of pavement roughness, macrotexture depth, road curvature, superelevation, vertical grade, and vehicle speed. Special focus is placed on establishing robust calibration methodologies for commercial vehicle fleets operating under heavy axle load conditions and variable tire maintenance standards, such as improper inflation pressure or wheel misalignment. Algorithms are presented for calculating carcass wear, retreadability rates, and catastrophic tire failure probabilities, enabling a complete life-cycle cost assessment of vehicle tires. Practical guidance is provided on default parameter values for modern radial tire designs compared to legacy bias-ply tires, ensuring that the model accurately reflects contemporary fleet characteristics and rubber compound formulations. This refined specification serves as the primary technical blueprint for coding the finalized tire consumption algorithms within the HDM-4 software suite for global highway economic appraisals. Overall, the report emphasizes rigorous empirical validation, standardized data acquisition protocols, and modular integration into the broader Highway Development and Management analytical engine. By combining physical principles with statistical calibration across international trial sites, this working paper provides a robust theoretical and practical baseline for highway authorities to evaluate long-term infrastructure policy

 

This introductory technical paper outlines the initial conceptual framework and proposed scope for modeling vehicle tire wear and consumption in the HDM-4 highway evaluation model. Written during the early phase of the International Study of Highway Development and Management Tools (ISOHDM), the report reviews legacy tire algorithms from HDM-III and identifies key limitations in predicting modern tire performance, particularly regarding radial construction, synthetic rubber compounds, and advanced tread patterns. The document defines the primary objectives of the new tire model: to establish mechanistic-empirical relationships between road condition parameters (roughness, surface texture, geometric alignment) and tire life, retreadability, and replacement costs across full vehicle fleets. Basic force balance equations are proposed, isolating the impacts of road gradient, horizontal curvature, vehicle speed, and pavement roughness on tread abrasion. In addition, the report highlights the data collection requirements for global calibration trials, outlining field survey protocols for monitoring tread depth loss in commercial transport fleets across diverse climatic zones. This baseline paper established the foundation for subsequent technical working groups to refine vehicle operating cost (VOC) calculations and standard software routines within the broader HDM-4 system architecture. Overall, the report emphasizes rigorous empirical validation, standardized data acquisition protocols, and modular integration into the broader Highway Development and Management analytical engine. By combining physical principles with statistical calibration across international trial sites, this working paper provides a robust theoretical and practical baseline for highway authorities to evaluate long-term infrastructure policy options, allocate maintenance budgets efficiently, and maximize economic returns across regional and national road networks.

 

How to predict tire traction and wear.